File Information
File: 05-lr/acl_arc_1_sum/cleansed_text/xml_by_section/metho/88/p88-1027_metho.xml
Size: 32,326 bytes
Last Modified: 2025-10-06 14:12:12
<?xml version="1.0" standalone="yes"?> <Paper uid="P88-1027"> <Title>PARSING VS. TEXT PROCESSING IN THE ANALYSIS OF DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS</Title> <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho"> <SectionTitle> PARSING VS. TEXT PROCESSING IN THE ANALYSIS OF DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS </SectionTitle> <Paragraph position="0"/> </Section> <Section position="2" start_page="0" end_page="0" type="metho"> <SectionTitle> ABSTRACT </SectionTitle> <Paragraph position="0"> We have analyzed definitions from Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary using Sager's Linguistic String Parser and again using basic UNIX text processing utilities such as grep and awk. Tiffs paper evaluates both procedures, compares their results, and discusses possible future lines of research exploiting and combining their respective strengths.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="1"> Introduction As natural language systems grow more sophisticated, they need larger and more d~led lexicons. Efforts to automate the process of generating lexicons have been going on for years, and have often been combined with the analysis of machine-readable dictionaries.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="2"> Since 1979, a group at HT under the leadership of Manha Evens has been using the machine-readable version of Webster' s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (W7) in text generation, information retrieval, and the theory of lexical-semantic relations. This paper describes some of our recent work in extracting semantic information from WT, primarily in the form of word pairs linked by lexical-semantic relations. We have used two methods: parsing definitions with Sager's Linguistic String Parser (LSP) and text processing with a combination of UNIX utilities and interactive editing. We will use the terms &quot;parsing&quot; and &quot;text processing&quot; here primarily with reference to our own use of the LSP and UNIX utilities respectively, but will also use them more broadly. &quot;Parsing&quot; in this more general sense will mean a computational technique of text analysis drawing on an extensive database of linguistic knowledge, e.g., the lexicon, syntax and/or semantics of English; &quot;text processing&quot; will refer to any computational technique that involves little or no such knowledge.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="3"> This research is supported by National Science Foundation grant IST 87-03580. Our thanks also to the G & C Merriam Company for permission to use the dictionary tapes.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="4"> Our model of the lexicon emphasizes lexical and semantic relations between words. Some of these relationships axe fan~iliar. Anyone who has used a dictionary or thesaurus has encountered synonymy, and perhaps also antonymy. W7 abounds in synonyms (the capitalized words in the examples below): (1) funny 1 la aj affording light mirth and laughter : AMUSING (2) funny 1 lb aj seeking or intended to amuse</Paragraph> </Section> <Section position="3" start_page="0" end_page="222" type="metho"> <SectionTitle> : FACETIOUS </SectionTitle> <Paragraph position="0"> Our notation for dictionary definitions consists of: (1) the entry (word or phrase being defined); (2) the homograph number (multiple homographs are given sepmaw entries in W7); (3) the sense number, which may include a subsense letter and even a subsubseuse number (e.g. 263); (4) the text of the definition.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="1"> We commonly express a relation between words through a triple consisting of Wordl, Relation, Word2: (3) funny SYN amusing (4) funny SYN facetious A third relation, particularly important in W7 and in dictionaries generally, is taxonomy, the species-genus relation or (in artificial intelligence) the IS-A relation. Consider the entries: (5) dodecahedron 0 0 n a solid having 12 plane faces (6) build 1 1 vt to form by ordering and uniting materials...</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="2"> These definitions yield the taxonomy Iriples (7) dodecahedron TAX solid (8) build TAX form Taxonomy is not explicit in definitions, as is synonymy, but is implied in their very structure. Some other relations have been frequently observed, e.g.: (9) driveshaft PART engine (10) wood COMES-FROM tree The usefulness of relations in information retrieval is demonstrated in Wang et al. \[1985\] as well as in Fox \[1980\]. Relations are also important in giving coherence to text, as shown by Halliday and Hasan \[1977\]. They are abundant in a typical English language dictionary, us we will see later. We have recognized, however, that word-relation-word triples are not adequate, or at least not optimal, for expressing all the useful information associated with words. Some information is best expressed us unary attributes or feauLres. We have also recognized that phrases and even larger structures may on one hand be in some ways equivalent to single words, as pointed out by Becker \[1975\], or may on the other hand express complex facts that cannot be reduced to any combination of word-to- word links.</Paragraph> <Section position="1" start_page="217" end_page="222" type="sub_section"> <SectionTitle> Parsing </SectionTitle> <Paragraph position="0"> Recognizing the vastness of the task of parsing a whole dictionary, most computational lexicologists have preferred approaches less comp,,t~tionally intensive and more specifically suited to their immediate goals. A partial exception is Amsler \[1980\], who proposed a simple ATN grammar for some definitions in the Merriam.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="1"> Webster Pocket D/ctionary. More recently, Jensen and her coworkers at IBM have also parsed definitions. But the record shows that dictionary researchers have avoided parsing. One of our questions was, how justified is this avoidance? How much harder is parsing, and what rewards, ff any, will the effort yield7 We used Sager's Linguistic String Parser, as we have clone for several years. It has been continuously developed since the 1970s and by now has a very extensive and powerful user interface us well as a large English grammar and a vocabulary (the LSP Dictionary) of over 10,000 words. It is not exceptionally fast -- a fact which should be taken into account in evaluating the performance of parsers generally in dictionary analysis.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="2"> Our efforts to parse W7 definitions began with simple LSP grammars for small sets of adjective \[Ahlswede, 1985\] and adverb \[Klick, 1981\] definitions. These led evenm, lly to a large grammar of noun, verb and adjective definitions \[Ahlswede, 1988\], based on the Linguistic Siring Project's full English grammar \[Sager, 1981\], and using the LSP's full set of resources, including restrictions, transformations, and special output generation routines. All of these grammars have been used not only to create parse trees but also (and primarily) to generate relational triples linking defined words to the major words used in their definitions.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="3"> The large definition grammar is described more fully in Ahlswede \[1988\]. We are concerned here with its performance: its success in parsing definitions with a minimum of incorrect or improbable parses, its success in identifying relational triples, and its speed.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="4"> Input to the parser was a set of 8,832 definition texts from the machine-readable WT, chosen because their vocabulary permitted them to be parsed without enlarging the LSP's vocab-I~ry.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="5"> For parsing, the 8,832-definition subset was sorted by part of speech and broken into 100definition blocks of nouns, transitive verbs, imransitive verbs, and adjectives. Limiting the selection to nouns, verbs and adjectives reduced the subset to 8,211, including 2,949 nouns, 1,451 adjectives, 1,272 intransitive verbs, and 2,549 transitive verbs.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="6"> We were able to speed up the parsing process considerably by automatically extracting subvocabularies from the LSP vocabulary, so that for a IO0-definition input sample, for inslance, the parser would only have to search tln'ough about 300 words instead of I0,000.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="7"> Parsing the subset eventually required a little under 180 hours of CPU time on two machines, a Vax 8300 and a Vax 750. Total clock time required &quot; was very little more than this, however, since almost all the parsing was done at night when the systems were otherwise idle. Table 1 compares the LSP's performance in the four part of speech categories. efficiency of LSP by part of speech of words defined (adapted from Fox et ul., 1988) In most cases, there is little variation among the parts of speech. The most obvious discrepancy is the slow parsing time for wansifive verbs. We are not yet sure why this is, but we suspect it has to do with W7&quot;s practice of representing the defined verb's direct object by an empty slot in the definition: (11) madden 0 2 vt to make intensely angry (12) magnetize 0 2 vt to communicate magnetic properties to The total number of triples generated was 51,115 and the number of unique triples was 25,178. The most common triples were 5,086 taxonomles and 7,971 modification relations. (Modification involved any word or phrase in the definition that modified the headword; thus a definition such as &quot;cube: a regular solid ...&quot; would yield the modification triple (cube MOD regular)).</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="8"> We also identified 125 other relations, in three categories: (1) &quot;traditional&quot; relmions, identified by previous researchers, which we hope to associate with axioms for making inferences; (2) syntactic relations between the defined word and various defining words, such as (in a verb definition) the direct object of the head verb, which we will investigate for possible consistent semantic significance; and (3) syntactic relations within the body of the definition, such as modifier-head, verbobject, etc, The relations in this last category were built into our grammar;, we were simply collecting s_t~_ti$~ics on their occurrence, which we hope even.rally to test for the existence of dictionaryspecific selectional categories above and beyond the general English selectional categories already present in the LSP grammar.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="9"> Figure 1 shows a sample definition and the triples the parser found in it.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="10"> In this definition, &quot;part&quot; is a typical category 1 relation, recognized by virtually all students of relations, though they may disagree about its exact nature. &quot;Ira&quot; and &quot;rm&quot; are left and right modification. As can be seen, &quot;rm&quot; does not involve analysis of the long posmominal modifier phrase.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="11"> &quot;pmod&quot; and &quot;pobj&quot; are permissible modifier and permissible object, respectively; these are among the most common category 3 relations.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="12"> We began with a list of about fifty relations, intending to generate plain parse trees and then examine them for relational triples in a separate step. It soon became clear, however, that the LSP itself was the best tool available for extracting information from parse trees, especially its own parse trees.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="13"> Therefore we added a section to the grammar consisting of routines for identifying relations and printing out triples. The LSP's Restriction Language permitted us to keep this section physically separate from the rest of the grammar and thus to treat it as an independent piece of code. Having done this, we were able to add new relations in the com~e of developing the grammar.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="14"> Approximately a third of the definitions in the sample could not be parsed with this grammar.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="15"> During development of the grammar, we uncovered a great many reasons why definitions failed to parse; there remains no one fix which will add more than a few definitions to the success list. However, some general problem areas can be identified.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="16"> One common cause of failure is the inability of the grammar to deal with all the nuances of adjective comparison: (13) accelerate 0 1 vt to bring about at an earlier point of time Idiomatic ,~es of common words are a frequent source of failure: (14) accommodnto. 0 3c vt to make room for There are some errors in the input, for example an inlransitive verb definition labeled as transitive: (15) ache 1 2 vt to become fill~ with painful yearning As column 3 of Table 1 indicates, many definitions yielded multiple parses. Multiple parses were responsible for most of the duplicate relational triples.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="17"> Finding relational triples by text processing As the performance statistics above show, parsing is painfully slow. For the simple business of finding and writing relational triples, it turns out to be much less efficient than a combination of text processing with interactive editing.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="18"> We first used straight text processing to identify synonym references in definitions and reduce them to triples. Our next essay in the text processing/editing method began as a casual experiment. We extracted the set of intransitive verb definitions, suspecting that these would be the easiest to work with. This is the smallest of the four major W7 part of speech categories (the others being nouns, adjectives, and Iransitive verbs) with 8,883 texts. Virtually all verb definition texts begin with to followed by a head verb, or a set of conjoined head verbs. The most common words in the second position in inwansitive verb definitions, along with their typical complements, were: become + noun or adj. phrase (774 occurrences in 8,482 definitions) mate + noun phrase \[+ adj. phrase\]</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="20"> Definitions in become, make and move had such consistent forms that the core word or words in the object or complement phrase were easy to identify. Occasional prepositional phrases or other posmominal constructions were easy to edit out by hand. From these, and from some definitions in serve as, we were able to generate triples representing five relations.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="21"> (16) age 2 2b vi to become mellow or mature (17) (age 2 2b vi) va-incep (mature) (18) (age 2 2b vi) va-incep (mellow) (19) add 0 2b vi to make an addition (20) (add 0 2b vi) vn-canse (addition) (21) accelerate 0 I vi to move faster (22) (accelerate 0 1 vi) move (faster) (23) add 0 2a vi to serve as an addition (24) (add 0 2a vi) vn-be (addition) (25) annotate 0 0 vi to make or furnish critical or explanatory notes (26) (annotate 0 0 vi) va-cause (critical) (27) (annotate 0 0 vi) va-cause (explanatory) We also al~empted to generate taxonomic triples for inwansitive verbs. In verb definitions, we identified conjoined headwords, and otherwise deleted everything to the right of the last headword. This was straightforward and gave us almost 1O,000 triples.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="22"> These triples are of mixed quality, however. Those representing very common headwords such as be or become are vacuous; worse, our lexically dumb algorithm could not recognize phrasal verbs, so that a phrasal head term such as take place appears as as take, with misleading results.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="23"> The vacuous triples can easily be removed from the total, however, and the incorrect triples resulting from broken phrasal head terms are relatively few. We therefore felt we had been highly successful, and were inspired to proceed with nouns. As with verbs, we are primarily interested in relations other than taxonomy, and these are most commonly found in the often lengthy postoheadword part of the definitions.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="24"> The problems we encountered with nouns were generally the same as with inlransitive verbs, but accentuated by the much larger number (80,022) of noun definition texts. Also, as Chodorow et al. \[1985\] .have noted, the boundary between the headword and the postnominal part of the definition is much harder to identify in noun definitions than in verb definitions. Our first algorithm, which had no lexical knowledge except of prepositions, was about 88% correct in finding the boundary.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="25"> In order to get better results, we needed an algorithm comparable to Chodorow's Head Finder, which uses part of speech information. Our strategy is first to tag each word in each definition with all its possible parts of six,h, then to step through the definitions, using Chodorow's heuristics (plus any others we can find or invent) to mark prenonn-noun and nunn-posmoun boundaries.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="26"> The first step in tagging is to generate a tagged vocabulary. We nsed an awk program to step through the entries and nm-ons, appending to each one its part or parts of speech. (A run-on is a subentry, giving information about a word or phrase derived from the entry word or phrase; for instance, the verb run has the run-ons run across, run ~fter, and run a temperature among others; the noun rune has the run-on adjective runic.) Archaic, obsolete, or dialect forms were marked as such by W7 and could be excluded.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="27"> Turning to W7's defining vocabulary, the words (and/or phrases) actually employed in definitions, we used Mayer's morphological analyzer \[1988\] to identify regular noun plurals, adjective comparatives and superlatives, and verb tense forms. Following suggestions by Peterson \[1982\], we assumed that words ending in -/a and -ae (virt~mlly all appearing in scientific names) were nouns.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="28"> We then added to our tagged vocabulary those irregular noun plurals and verb tense forms expressly given in W7. Unforumately, neither W7 nor Mayer's program provides for derived compounds with irregular plurals; for instance, W7 indicates men as the plural of man but there are over 300 nouns ending in -man for which no plural is shown. Most of these (e.g., salesman, trencherman) take plurals in -men but others (German, shaman) do not. These had to be identified by hand. Another group of nouns, whose plurals we found convenient rather than absolutely necessary to treat by hand, is the 200 or so ending in -ch. (Those with a hard -ch (patriarch, loch) take plurals in -chs; the rest take plurals in -ches.) We could have exploited W7's pronunciation information to distinguish these, but the work would have been well out of proportion to the scale of the task.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="29"> After some more of this kind of work, we had a tagged vocabulary of 46,566 words used in W7 definitions. For the next step, we chose to generate tagged blocks of definitions (rather than perform tagging on the fly). We wrote a C program to read a text file and replac~ each word with its tagged counterpart. (We are not yet attempting to deal with phrases.) Head finding on noun definitions was done with an awk program which examines consecutive pairs of words (working from right to left) and marks prenoun-noun and nonn-posmoun boundaries. It recognizes certain kinds of word sequences as beyond its ability to disambiguate, e.g.: (28) alarm 1 2a n a \[ signal }? warning } of danger (29) aitatus 0 0 n a { divine }7 imparting } of knowledge or power The result of all this effort is a rudimentary parsing system, in which the tagged vocabulary is the lexicon, the tagging program is the lexical analyzer, and the head finder is a syntax analyzer using a very simple finite state grammar of about ten rules.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="30"> Despite its lack of linguistic sophistication, this is a clear step in the direction of parsing.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="31"> And the effort seems to be justified.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="32"> Development took about four weeks, most of it spent on the lexicon. (And, to be sure, mote work is still needed.) This is more than we expected, but considerably less than the eight man-months spent developing and testing the LSP definition grammar. Tagging and head finding were performed on a sample of 2157 noun definition texts, covering the nouns from a through anode. 170 were flagged as ambiguous; of the remaining 1987, all but 58 were correct for a success rate of 97.1 percent.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="33"> In 37 of the 58 failures, the head finder mistakenly identified a noun (or polysemous adjective/noun) modifying the head as an independent noun: (30) agiotage 0 1 n ( exchange } business (3 I) alpha 1 3 n the { chief ) or brightest star of a constellation There were 5 cases of misidenfification of a following adjective (parsable as a noun) as the head noun: (32) air mile 0 0 n a unit { equal } to 6076.1154 feet The remaining failures resulted from errors in the creation of the tagged vocabulary (5), non-definitien dictionary lines incorrectly labeled as definition texts (53, and non-noun definitions inconecfly labeled as noun definitions (6). The last two categories arose from errors in our original W7 tape.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="34"> Among the 170 definitions flagged as ambiguous, there were two mislabeled definitions and one vocabulary en~r. There were 128 cases of noun followed by an -/n& form; in 116 of these the -/ng form was a participle, otherwise it was the head noun. (The other case flagged as ambiguous was of a possible head followed by a preposition also parsable as an adjective. This flag turned out to be unnecessary.) There were also seven instances of miscellaneous misidentification of a modifying noun as the head. Thus the &quot;success rate&quot; among these definitions was 148/170 or 87.1 percent.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="35"> We are still working on improving the head finder, as well as developing similar &quot;grammars&quot; for posmominal phrases and for the major phrase str~tures of other definition types. In the course of this work we expect to solve the major &quot;problem in this parficnl~ grammar, that of prenominal modifiers identified as heads.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="36"> Parsing, again Simple text processing, even without such lexical knowledge as parts of speech, is about as accurate as parsing in terms of correct vs. incorrect relational triples identified. (It should be noted that both methods require hand checking of the output, and it seems unlikely that we will ever completely eliminate this step.) The text processing strategy can be applied to the entire corpus of definitions, without the labor of enlarging a parser lexicon such as the LSP Dictionary. And it is much faster.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="37"> This way of looking at our results may make it appear that parsing was a waste of time and effort, of value only as a lesson in how not to go about dictionary analysis. Before coming to any such conclusion, however, we should consider some other factors.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="38"> It has been suggested that a more &quot;modem&quot; parser than the LSP could give much faster parsing times. At least part of the slowness of the LSP is due to the completeness of its associated English grammar, perhaps the most detailed grammar associated with any natural language parser. Thus a probable tradcoff for greater speed would be a lower percentage of definitions successfully parsed.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="39"> Nonetheless, it appears that the immediate future of parsing in the analysis of dictionary definitions or of any other large text corpus lies in a simpler, less computationally intensive parsing technique. In addition, a parser for definition analysis needs to be able to return partial parses of difficult definitions. As we have seen, even the LSP's detailed grammar failed to parse about a third of the definitions it was given. A partial parse capability would facilitate the use of simpler grammars.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="40"> For further work with the machine-~Jul~ble W7, another valuable feature would be the ability to handle ill-formed input. This is perhaps startling, since a dictionary is supposed to be the epitome of wellftxmedness, by definition as it were. However, Peterson \[1982\] counted 903 typographical and spelling en~rs in the machine-readable W7 (including ten errors carried over from the printed WT), and my experience suggests that his count was conservative. Such errors are probably little or no problem in more recent MRDs, which are used as typesetter input and are therefore exacdy as correct as the printed dictionary; exrots creep into these dictionaries in other places, as Boguraev \[1988\] discovered in his study of the grammar codes in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="41"> Before choosing or designing the best parser for the m~k, it is worthwhile to define an appropriate task: to determine what sort of information one can get from parsing that is impossible or impractical to get by easier means.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="42"> One obvious approach is to use parsing as a backup. For instance, one category of definitiuns that has steadfastly resisted our text processing analysis is that of verb definitions whose headword is a verb plus separable particle, e.g. give up. A text processing program using part-of-sgw.~h tagged input can, however, flag these and other troublesome definitions for further analysis.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="43"> It still seems, though, that we should be able to use parsing more ambitiously than this. It is intrinsically more powerful; the techniques we refer to here as &quot;text processing&quot; mostly only extract single, stereotyped fragments of information. The most powerful of them, the head finder, still performs only one simple grammatical operation: finding the nuclei of noun phrases. In conwast, a &quot;real&quot; parser generates a parse tree containing a wealth of structural and relational information that cannot be adequately represented by a fcenn~li~m such as word-relation-word triples, feature lists, etc.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="44"> Only in the simplest definitions does our present set of relations give us a complete analysis. In most definitions, we are forced to throw away essential information. The definition (33) dodecahedron 0 0 n a solid having 12 plane faces gives us two relational triples:</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="46"> The first triple is straightforward. The second triple tells us that the noun dodecahedron has the (noun) auribute face, i.e. that a dodecahedron has faces.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="47"> But the relational triple structme, by itself, cannot capture the information that the dodecahedron has specifically 12 faces. We could add another triple (36) (face) nn-atlr (12) i.e., saying that faces have the anribute of (a cardinality of) 12, but this Iriple is correct only in the context of the definition of a dodecahedron. It is not permanendy or generically true, as are (28) and (29).</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="48"> The information is present, however, in the parse Iree we get from the LSP. It can be made somewhat more accessible by putting it into a dependency form such as (37) (soild (a) (having (face (plural) (12) (plane)))) which indicates not only that face is an attribute of that solid which is a dodecahedron, but that the ~ty 12 is an attribute of face in this particular case, as is also plane.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="49"> In order to be really useful, a structure such as this must have conjunctionphrases expanded, passives inverted, inflected forms analyzed, and other modifications of the kind often brought under the rubric of &quot;transformations.&quot; The LSP can do this sort of thing very welL The defining words also need to be disambiguated. We do not hope for any fully automatic way to do this, but co-C/r.currence of defining words, perhaps weighted according to their position in the dependency slructure, would reduce the human di~mbiguator's task to one of postediting. This might perhaps be further simplified by a customized interactive editing facility.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="50"> We do not need to set up an elaborate network data structure, though; the Lisp-like tree structure, once it is transformed and its elements disambiguated, constitutes a set of implicit pointers to the definitions of the various words.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="51"> Even with all this work done, however, a big gap remains between words and ideal semantic concepts. Let us consider the ways in which W7 has defined all five basic polyhedrons: (38) dodecahedron 0 0 n a solid having 12 plane faces (39) cube 1 1 n the regular solid of six equal square sides (40) icosahedmn 0 0 n a polyhedron having 20 faces (41) octahedron 0 0 n a solid bounded by eight plane faces (42) tetrahedron 0 0 n a polyhedron of four faces (43) polyhedron 0 0 n a solid formed by plane faces The five polyhedrons differ only in their number of faces, apart from the cube's additional attribute of being regular. There is no reason why a single syntactic/semantic structure could not be used to define all five polyhedrons. Despite this, no two of the definitions have the same structure. These definitions illaslrate that, even though W7 is fairly stereotyped in its language, it is not nearly as stereotyped as it needs to be for large scale, automatic semantic analysis. We are going to need a great deal of sophistication in synonymy and moving around the taxonomic hierarchy. (It is worth repeating, however, that in building our lexicon, we have no intention of relying exclusively on the information contained in W7).</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="52"> Figure 2 shows a small part of a possible network. In this sample, the definitions have been parsed into a Lisp-like dependency slructure, with some wansformations such as inversion of passives, but no attempt to fit the polyhedron definitions into a single semantic format.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="53"> (cube 1 1) T (solid 3 1 (the) (regular) (of (side 1 6b (PL) (six)</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="55"> If this formalism does not look much like a network, imagine each word in each definition (the part of the node to the right of the taxonomy marker 'W&quot;) serving as a pointer to its own defining node. The resulting network is quite dense. We simplify by leaving out other parts of the lexical entry, and by including only a few disambignations, just to give the flavor of their presence. Disambignation of a word is indicated by the inclusion of its homograph and sense numbers (see examples 1 and 2, above).</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="56"> Summary In the process of developing techniques of dictionary analysis, we have learned a variety of lessons. In particular, we have learned (as many dictionary researchers had suspected but none had attempted to establish) that full namral-langnage parsing is not an efficient procedure for gathering lexical information in a simple form such as relational Iriples. This realization stimulated us to do two things.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="57"> F'n~'t, we needed to develop faster and more reliable techniques for extracting triples. We found that many Iriples could be found using UNIX text processing utilities combined with the recognition of a few structural patterns in definitions..These procedures are subject to further development and refinement, but have already yielded thousands of triples.</Paragraph> <Paragraph position="58"> Second, we were inspired to look for a form of data representation that would allow our lexical d-tabase to exploit the power of full natural-language parsing more effectively than it can through triples. We are now in the early stages of investigating such a representation.</Paragraph> </Section> </Section> class="xml-element"></Paper>