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<Paper uid="W94-0306">
  <Title>Stylistic Variation in Multilingual Instructions</Title>
  <Section position="1" start_page="0" end_page="50" type="abstr">
    <SectionTitle>
Abstract
</SectionTitle>
    <Paragraph position="0"> Instructional tex-ts have been the object of many studies recently, motivated by the increased need to produce manuals (especially multilingual manuals) coupled with the cost of translators and technical writers. Because these studies concentrate on aspects other than the linguistic realismion of instructions - for example, the integration of text and graphics- they all generate a sequence of steps required to achieve a task, using imperatives. Our research so flu- shows, however, that manuals can iu fact have different styles, i.e., not all instructions are stated using a sequence of imperatives, and that, furthermore, different parts of manuals often use different styles. In this paper, we present our preliminary results from an analysis of over 30 user guides/manuals for consumer appliances and discuss some of the implications.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="1"> Introduction Instructional texts have been the object of many studies recently, with an emphasis on methods for integrating graphics and text, as in wIP (Wahlster et al., 1993) and COMET (Feiner and McKeown, 1990), for tailoring to the user (Peter and R~sner, 1994), for generating purpose expressions in English (Vander Linden, 1993), t~r producing multilingual instructions, (e.g., ROsner and Stede, 1991), and tot planning the appropriate referring expressions, (e.g., Dale, 1992). Most of This work is partially supported by the Commission of the European Union Grant LRE-62009,the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) Grant J19221, and by BC/DAAD ARC Project 293. Dr. Paris also gratefully acknowledges the support of the National Science Foundation Grant IRI-9003087. We would like to thank John Bateman, Richard Power and the anonymous reviewers for their useful comlnenLs.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="2"> * Dr. Paris is on leave from USC/Infonnation Sciences Institute, 4676 A&amp;niralty Way, Marina del Rey, CA 90292 and the Computer Science Department of the University of Southern California.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="3"> these systems produce only a sequence of steps necessary to accomplish a t,'tsk (e.g., change the engine oil, replace a radio battery, cook butter bean soup).</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="4"> One of the motivations for generating instructions automatically is the increased need to produce manuals, especially multilingual manuals, coupled with the cost of translators and technical writers. This is important not only for European manufacturers, who are required to produce manuals in all the languages of the European Union, but also for multinational companies, whose international sales are reported to constitute over half of their total sales. Given this motivation, then, producing the sequence of steps required to achieve a task is only part of the job: most user guides and manuals contain more than a simple sequence of steps to achieve a task. In our work, we are attempting to generate a more complete user guide, in several languages.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="5"> The emphasis of previous research on instructions has led to the almost exclusive use of one type of discourse structure (a sequence, reflecting the sequence of steps needed for a t,'tsk), and one type of realisation (the imperative). We have found, however, that manuals can have different styles: not all instructions are stated in a sequence, using the imperative form. This would indeed lead to rather monotonous texts, texts with potentially the wrong interpersonal force (too many imperatives can be too forceful!), and instructions in which the relative importance of various steps might be lost.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="6"> Furthermore, different parts of manuals often use different discourse structures and forms of realisation. In our work, 6C/S~ 1 ,* we are investigating the range of ,'tyros in instructional manuals in different languages, and the relationship between stylistic variants and the global structure of the manual both within and between languages.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="7"> The work reported here is part of the DRAFTER and file GIST projects at the University of Brighton (Scott, 1993), which aim to generate instructional manuals in several languages  : 7th International Generation Workshop * Kennebunkport, Maine deg June 21-24, 1994 and in different domains. We have analysed user guides in various languages, attempting to avoid translated manuals.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="8"> This paper presents our preliminary results concerning the different styles and global structures that frequently occur within English and French manuals for consumer appliances.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="9"> Although our analysis so far does not provide conclusive results with respect to the relationships between stylistic variants, the global structures, and different languages, they suggest that it is important for a system to provide a range of styles of instructions. Our results also indicate directions for further analysis.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="10"> Variation in instructions Instructions are aimed at conveying directions to perform a (set of) task(s). For example, we can have instructions for filling out a form, or for operating and repairing a device. We include in our definition of instructions activities related to the actions to be performed, such as installation (preparatory steps), maintenance and trouble-shooting, as well as warnings concerning the safe execution of the actions. Confining instructions solely to central actions to be performed is too restrictive as the above-mentioned aspects are also integral parts of carrying out a task safely and efficiently.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="11"> The most straightforward way to get a reader to pertorm a k'Lsk is, of course, through the use of a sequence of imperatives. However, our analysis of a corpus of over 30 user manuals for consumer appliances reveals a variety of realisations for such directions, from imperatives to simple statements. Statements may, by some, be considered to be outside the scope of instructions. We do not hold m this: we have found numerous examples to support the view that statements are often implicit instructions. Consider, for example, the following instructions from English and French tbr using a insulated flask, taken from EMSA Thermos.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="12"> Filter coffee: Simply place the filter on your EMSA vacuum jug to prevent escape of aroma and temperature Filtrage du caf6: Le cal'6 peut-&amp;re filtr6 directement dans le pichet. Le porte-filtres s'adapte p~trfaitement sur l'ouverture du pichet, 6vitant ainsi la perte et la dispersion de l'ar6me du caf6.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="13"> Loose English Translation: Filtering of Coffee: The co2~.e can be filtered directly into the jug. Filter holders .lit perfectly on the opening of the jug, thus preventing loosing the aroma of the coffee Here we see that the English instructions to filter coffee is given as an imperative, whereas, in the French version, the user is provided with a description of the utensil, from which the directions can be derived.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="14"> The issue of style is of course not a new one: indeed, there are whole subfields of theoretical and computational linguistics devoted to it. Sometimes it is referred to as stylistics (e.g., Crystal and Davy, 1969; Ager, 1970; DiMarco, 1992), special languages (e.g., Sager et aL, 1980), sublanguages (e.g., Kittredge and Lehrberger, 1982), conative function (e.g., Jakobs~na, 1960), registers (e.g., Halliday, 1973; Ghadessy, 1988; Bateman and Paris, 1989; Martin, 1992), or pragmatic eftects (e.g., Hovy, 1988). It is thus not surprising that this linguistic feature also applies to instructions, although it has not been explicitly addressed so far.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="15"> The different styles in instructional manuals appear to be closely allied to the stance the writer takes towards the reader. For example, different stances are usually taken when providing a description and a warning. Although, in general, such stances can be a decision on the part of the writer (or speaker), in which case it can be referred to as a conative intention (Sager et al., 1980), in the case of instructional manuals, it is usually an institutional decision on the part of the product manufacturer or the technical writing company (this is often referred to as &amp;quot;house style&amp;quot;). Stances can indeed be exploited in manuals to project a specific company image (for example, your friendly local nuclear power pianO. These stances are factors that professional technical authors and translators are taught to pay particular attention to when writing or translating instructions, since failure to do so will lead to instructions which, although technically and grammatically correct, have an unintended pragmatic force. Following Systemic Linguistic Theory (Halliday, 1978), we wiU refer to these stances as semantic meanings to be expressed, at the interpersonal level.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="16"> Semantic meanings lead to the inclusion of different types of information, different organisations of a text, and different expressions of the actions to be performed. For instance, with indirect commands &amp;quot;the addressee is treated as if they have the fight to demur&amp;quot;; a choice of a direct command, on the other hand, &amp;quot;grants the addressee little or no discretion&amp;quot; (Hasan, 1988, p 24). They can even result in different typographical devices. This is why not all instructions are written as a sequence of steps in the imperative mode. Depending on the semantic meanings to be conveyed, the text can be quite different at both the discourse and realisation levels.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="17"> From our text analysis, we have began to identify different meanings that can be conveyed in user manuals and their preferred realisations. We have noted that these meanings are not constant throughout an entire manual, but vary across sections. It is thus necessary to identify the different parts that make up manuals, the semantic meanings that can be expressed in the different sections, and the linguistic means available to express them. Furthermore, given our multi-lingual framework, we are also investigating whether the preferred linguistic means of realising these meanings differ across languages, and whether the preferred stance is likely to change across various languages, as suggested by Hervey and Higgins (1992), and for different target audiences. The work on DRAFTER and GIST is directly related to these issues.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="18"> Semantic Meanings We have so t~ analysed over 30 manuals given to users when they buy consumer-ofiented goods, such ms coffee machines and camping stoves, in both French and English when available. These manuals are at least one page long and can be up to 10 to 20 pages. In conducting our analysis, we tried to identify the different attitudes expressed in the texts, their potential realisations, and the global structure of the texts.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="19"> We have identified four different stances that a manual can adopt and give examples of them in Figure 1:  7th International Generation Workshop * Kennebunkport, Maine * June 21-24, 1994 (1) Information Provision - from Dietrich self-cleaning enamel oven: L'~mail auto-nettoyant est de couleur brun fonc6 mouchet~ de blanc pour certaines pitces. Loose English Translation: The self-cleaning enamel is dark brown, speckled with white on some parts. (2) Information Provision- from HP Laser Jet 4 Printer Installation Guide: The optional 500-sheet paper tray assembly comes equipped with a tray housing and either a legal, letter, A4, and executive multi-size paper tray or a letter, A4, and executive multi-size paper tray. You may purchase replacement trays from your authorized HP dealer. The part number of the letter, A4 and executive multi-size paper tray is C2084B... (3) Eulogy - from Sennheisser Headphones: To wish to convince you of the superior quality of the dynamic open air headphone HI) 40 would be something of a paradox as you are by now akeady in possession of this product. However, the arguments for the HD 40 are in fact very convincing: Hw * &amp;quot;oh quahty reproduction.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="20"> * Exa'emely corafortable thanks to very low weight.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="21"> * Problem-free connection by means of universal connector.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="22"> * Very flat storage space thanks to turntable driver elements.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="23"> (4) Directive - from Krupp Expresso Coffee Machine: Do not use or put down the appliance on any hot surlhce (such as a stove hot-plate) or in the vicinity of an open gas time. (5) Directive - from Camping Stove: Camping Gaz International: Utilisez toujours votre rtchaud dans un endroit suffisamment a~r~, sans l'envelopper dans un objet quelconque et pas trop prrts de mati~res inflammables.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="24"> Loose English Translation: Always use ),our stove in a well ventilated place, without wrapping it in any object and not too close to flanululble substances.</Paragraph>
    <Paragraph position="25"> (6) Explanation - from Dietrich Oven: To avoid heavy spitfings on the sole plate, it is advisable to cover it with an aluminium foil. (7) Explanation - from EMSA Thermos Attention: Pour ~viter d'abimer le recipient en verre, ne remuez pas les boissons avec des cuill~res mEtalliques. Loose English Translation: Warning: To avoM damage to the glass jug, do not stir drinks with metallic spoons. Figure 1: Stances a manual can adopt</Paragraph>
    <Section position="1" start_page="47" end_page="50" type="sub_section">
      <SectionTitle>
7th International Generation Workshop * Kennebunkport, Maine * June 21-24, 1994
</SectionTitle>
      <Paragraph position="0"> * information provision: the text concentrates on the factual knowledge to be conveyed. This can be seen as augmenting the reader's knowledge about the artifact and/or the task.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="1"> * eulogy: the text emphasises the positive aspects of the product or &amp;quot;congratulates&amp;quot; the readers on their good choice of purchase.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="2"> * directive on how to perform a task: the reader is to achieve a task exactly as prescribed. Here, the rationale behind the prescriptions is not considered necessary * explanation on the preferred means of achieving the task: the reader is given advice as to how to achieve a task, and an explanation as to why it should be done in the prescribed way. This provides opportunities for the reader to construct a mental model of the task or of the artifact. We note that the choice of stance seems to be influenced by several factors, including safety, requirements for memorability (for example, there is no point going to great length to have the reader build up a mental model of the task if it is to be accomplished only occasionally and there are no damat, me,,,&amp;quot; ,, consequences involved), and the expected expertise of the readership.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="3"> Information provision and eulogy On taking these two stances, writers show a strong preference for the use of simple acdve declaratives. However, while their expressions tend to coincide in many aspects, there are also clear differences in linguistic expression of these two attitudes. (The similarities may well arise because it is useful to the manufacturer for eulogies about the product to be interpreted as factual information.) When a eulogy is given, many attributes (qualifiers) tend to be included. They are realised as very positive adjectives and as superlatives. For further emphasis, consequences of a specific attribute are often provided, or examples are given. The type of language used to express this semantic meaning is similar to that used in advertising (Toolan, 1988).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="4"> Examples of texts in these categories are shown in (1, 2, 3) of Figure 1. The texts in (1) and (2) are purely informative: the first provides information about the colour of the enamel inside the stove, the second about the printer paper tray. (3) is more of a eulogy, explicitly employing very tavoumble qualifiers, to convey the superior attributes of the product: high-quality reproduction, extreme comfort, etc.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="5"> Directive The core function of instructions is to get users to perform (or avoid) specific actions. The most straightforward way of conveying this meaning is to provide directives: the reader is told to (or not to) do some action(s). The concern is not that the reader knows necessarily why this action should or should not be performed, but simply to have him or her follow the directive. The text asserts the authority of the writer (or the company) over the reader and leaves no choice to the reader to demur. ,Strongly dilective .speech acts (Sager et al., 1980) such as order or prohibit are used. An explanation of the order (or prohibition) is rarely given (in that the reader has no way of knowing the rationale behind the need to perform or avoid the prescribed action). This is illustrated in (4, 5) of Figure 1. In these instructions, the reason for performing (or avoiding) the action is not provided: i.e., no reason is given for why the appliance should not be put on a hot surface, or why the stove should be used in a well ventilated area. The reader is expected simply to follow the &amp;quot;directive. A setting or a condition for the action (e.g., when X happens, do Y), is provided as well if necessary.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="6"> These strong directive speech acts can be realised in a number of ways, depending on the distance to be put between the reader and the writer (or the company) - this might also be seen as a matter of how personal/impersonal the author wishes to be: * little distance- the writer directly addresses the reader: use of imperatives (or infinitives, in French), as in (1) in  * some distance - the writer addresses the reader but there is no strong involvement: use of the modal &amp;quot;must&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;devoir&amp;quot;, possibly accompanied with an adverb, capitalised or embolded to carry extra force. This is illustrated in (2) of Figure 2.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="7"> * great distance,- the order is given without addressing the reader: use of the passive (the device must not... ), or employing verbs which require the object to become the syntactic subject, together with an adverb for emphasis.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="8"> Examples are given in (3) of Figure 2.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="9"> In all cases, stronger emphasis on the directive can be given by including terms such as &amp;quot;never&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;under no circumstance&amp;quot;, as part of the sentence or even as a separate sentence, as illustrated in (4) of Figure 2. Although these forms are available in both languages, our data so far show a predominance of * the first category (the straight imperative) for English, and a much more equal distribution among the categories in French.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="10"> Explanation Instructions sometimes have a tutorial aspect: it is then not enough simply to get the user to perform an action; there is also an attempt to get the user to understand why the action should be performed in the prescribed way, and why a specific action contributes to an overall goal. In this case, the rationale behind the directive is provided, explaining why the action is necessary or relating it to goals the reader is expected to have. More information related to the step to be performed/avoided is included, as shown in (6, 7) of Figure 1. Like the directive meaning, the text asserts the authority of the writer (or the company) over the reader. This time, however, the text now leaves some choice to the reader as to whether to proceed and/or provides a justification to the reader of why the action is requested, so that it is not interpreted as an order. This meaning is often expressed through the use ofweaklydirective speech acts (Sager et al., 1980), such as recommend or instruct.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="11"> As with the strong directives speech acts, a variety of syntactic forms can occur here in both French and English through the use of (1) an imperative accompanied with the  7th International Generation Workshop * Kennebunkport, Maine * June 21-24, 1994 (1) Little distance is put between writer and reader:  ... grind the expresso coffee beans in a coffee mill set to grind &amp;quot;fine&amp;quot;. (From Krupp Expresso Coffee Machine) Lire tr~s attentivement le mode d'emploi. (From DUROTHERM PLUS) Loose English Translation: Read very carefully the numual.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="12"> (2) Some distance is put between writer and reader: Pour une bonne s6curit~, vous devez irnp~mtivement brancher votre appareil sur une prise de courant avec terre correspondant aux normes ~lectriques. (From: Four Moulinex) Loose English Translation: For safety, you must absolutely plug your device in an earthed socket. After recording your OGM, you must leave the cassette tape in place. (From Dialatron Answering Machine). To this end, the brewing sieve MUST first be unscrewed from the brewing head. (From Krupp Expresso Coffee Machine)  reason for the directive, or prefaced by some factual information which explaius the directive; (2) an impersonal directive, such as &amp;quot;it is (not) advisable to...&amp;quot; (il est dd/conseilld de ... &amp;quot;), with the justification for the action, and sometimes with an emphatic adverb (e.g., &amp;quot;strongly&amp;quot;); (3) formulae such as &amp;quot;it is appropriate to&amp;quot; (il convient de, il y a lieu de), &amp;quot;it is recommended that&amp;quot; (il est recommendd), &amp;quot;act is/will be recommended&amp;quot; or the passive voice mid the modal &amp;quot;should&amp;quot; (devoir). This choice once again depends on how strong, polite and indirect the writer wishes to be with respect to the reader. We give examples of the two extremes in Figure 3.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="13"> Summary We have just outlined the difl~rent semantic meauings that seem to be conveyed in French and English instructional texts.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="14"> The categorisation given above is still crude and requires further distinctions to account tbr the apparent overlap between some of the categories. For example, the tollowing text is right now categofised as both an intbrmation provision and a eulogy: Le four ~t 6mail auto-nettoyant se diff6rencie du four h &amp;nail normal par le thit que pendant la cuisson, les projections de corps gras sont d6truites dis qu'elles arrivent au contact des patois chaudes. Le nettoyage du tbur est ainsi supprim6 dans la plupart des cas. (From Dietrich self-cleaning enamel oven) Loose English Translation: The self-cleaning enamel oven is different from normal enamel ovens, because fat splashes during cooking are eliminated on contact with the hot walls. Cleaning the oven is thus unnecessary in most cases.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="15"> Finer distinctions have already been made for other genres (e.g., Hasan, 1988; Martin, 1992). We are currently investigating the appropriate mappings between their results and our data in order to derive the necessary refinement.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="16"> Having identified the different meanings that can be expressed in instructional texts, we now turn to the text as a whole, identifying its global structure and the relationship between parts of the global structure of the manual and their preferred skqnce.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="17"> A Global Structure Given our desire to generate user manuals automatically, we analysed the texts to see if they followed some global discourse structure as to what information was presented to the user, and what stance was taken at each point. We have found that the manuals were organised around several main parts: * general information about file product  Some manuals-contain all these parts, each clearly indicated. This is not always the case, however, and the information corresponding to these parts might be interleaved, especially when space is a problem and the writers do not want to explicitly have a section for each information-type.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="18"> For example, potential problems and warnings related to a specific step in a procedure might occur immediately after the step is given. 1 The writer can potentially take a dil~rent stance towards the reader in each part of the manual. For lack of space, we will present only our results for parts pertaining to general information and safety. We will summarise the results for the other sections. We will not provide further examples here. Instead, we will refer to examples already given when possible.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="19"> General Information This part of the manual tends to contain the lbllowing type of information: * thanks for buying the product; * description of the product, its advantages, and list of parts (often with accompanying diagrams).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="20"> * conditions for the warranty (or lack or) Here, a general description of the artifact is given, often after a short paragraph thanking the buyer. Two stances appear to be appropriate for this description: information provision and eulogy. When information provision is chosen, the text either presents mainly attributes or is structured along the lines of one of the schemas defined in McKeown (1985).</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="21"> It can also contain a list of parts accompanied with diagrams. INote, however, that information from these major parts of a manual cannot be mixed randomly. This will not be discussed here. When eulogy is chosen, although the text appears to be mainly informative, with the use of declarative sentences which describe the object, a large number of attributes (qualifiers) - especially attributes judged to be important to the reader - and superlatives are employed, and the product is described as being unique. While a description might be provided, it is equally common to find a list of the product's major attributes/advantages, one at a time, sometimes together with the consequence of a specific attribute (in terms of a user's goal) or with explicit examples.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="22"> In English manuals, this part is mostly for information provision. In French manuals, however, both forms appear frequently.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="23"> Information about safety This part includes warnings, general safety advice, and crucial steps to be performed (either to accomplish the ~sk or to obtain better results). It sometimes also contains a paragraph about reading the instructions. Our data show that the stance taken in this part can be a dkective, as illustrated in (4) of Figure 1, or an explanation, as in (6) of Figure 1.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="24"> Taking the explanation stance here appears more prevalent in French than in English. Furthermore, in French, it is also possible to write this part of the manual as information provision (from which the reader can infer what must be done). For example, a specification of the conditions under which a product will be operational are given, and the reader is expected to make sure these conditions are achieved.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="25"> Explicit headings, explicit examples, lay-out (e.g., a framed box) and typography can be employed to signal further the importance of an advice or a warning. When warnings are not stated in an explicit section, but appear instead after the relevant action/step, they are most often inlroduced with the header Important, Warning, or Note, or are given in bold face.</Paragraph>
      <Paragraph position="26"> Summary of results for the remaining sections Preparatory step or installation: Information on how to install the device, or about various steps which have to be performed before the first use is provided.</Paragraph>
    </Section>
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